Regulations of mitoNEET by the key redox homeostasis molecule glutathione.

Human mitoNEET (mNT) and CISD2 are two NEET proteins characterized by an atypical [2Fe-2S] cluster coordination involving three cysteines and one histidine. They act as redox switches with an active state linked to the oxidation of their cluster. In the present study, we show that reduced glutathione but also free thiol-containing molecules such as ß-mercaptoethanol can induce a loss of the mNT cluster under aerobic conditions, while CISD2 cluster appears more resistant. This disassembly occurs through a radical-based mechanism as previously observed with the bacterial SoxR. Interestingly, adding cysteine prevents glutathione-induced cluster loss. At low pH, glutathione can bind mNT in the vicinity of the cluster. These results suggest a potential new regulation mechanism of mNT activity by glutathione, an essential actor of the intracellular redox state.

Targeted delivery of immune-stimulating bispecific RNA, inducing apoptosis and anti-tumor immunity in cancer cells.

Double-stranded RNAs (dsRNA)-based strategies appeared as promising therapies to induce an inflammation in the tumor microenvironment. However, currently described systems generally lack active targeting of tissues, and their clinical translation is thus limited to intratumoral injection. Herein, we developed an antibody-siRNA-5'triphosphate conjugate with multiple modes of action, combining cell surface EphA2-specific internalization, leading to a simultaneous gene silencing and activation of the receptor retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I). Recognition of cytosolic siRNA-5'triphosphate by RIG-I triggers the expression of interferons and pro-inflammatory cytokines, inducing an inflammation of the tumor environment and activating neighboring immune cells. In addition, these RIG-I-specific effects synergized with siRNA-mediated PLK1 silencing to promote cancer cell death by apoptosis. Altogether, such immune-stimulating antibody-RNA conjugate opens a novel modality to overcome some limitations encountered by dsRNA molecules currently in clinical trials.

Subcutaneous Administration of a Zwitterionic Chitosan-Based Hydrogel for Controlled Spatiotemporal Release of Monoclonal Antibodies.

Subcutaneous (SC) administration of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is a proven strategy for improving therapeutic outcomes and patient compliance. The current FDA-/EMA-approved enzymatic approach, utilizing recombinant human hyaluronidase (rHuPH20) to enhance mAbs SC delivery, involves degrading the extracellular matrix's hyaluronate to increase tissue permeability. However, this method lacks tunable release properties, requiring individual optimization for each mAb. Seeking alternatives, physical polysaccharide hydrogels emerge as promising candidates due to their tunable physicochemical and biodegradability features. Unfortunately, none have demonstrated simultaneous biocompatibility, biodegradability, and controlled release properties for large proteins (≥150 kDa) after SC delivery in clinical settings. Here, a novel two-component hydrogel comprising chitosan and chitosan@DOTAGA is introduced that can be seamlessly mixed with sterile mAbs formulations initially designed for intravenous (IV) administration, repurposing them as novel tunable SC formulations. Validated in mice and nonhuman primates (NHPs) with various mAbs, including trastuzumab and rituximab, the hydrogel exhibited biodegradability and biocompatibility features. Pharmacokinetic studies in both species demonstrated tunable controlled release, surpassing the capabilities of rHuPH20, with comparable parameters to the rHuPH20+mAbs formulation. These findings signify the potential for rapid translation to human applications, opening avenues for the clinical development of this novel SC biosimilar formulation.

Site-Selective Protein Conjugation by a Multicomponent Ugi Reaction.

The chemical bioconjugation of proteins has seen tremendous applications in the past decades, with the booming of antibody-drug conjugates and their use in oncology. While genetic engineering has permitted to produce bespoke proteins featuring key (un-)natural amino acid residues poised for site-selective modifications, the conjugation of native proteins is riddled with selectivity issues. Chemoselective strategies are plentiful and enable the precise modification of virtually any residue with a reactive side-chain; site-selective methods are less common and usually most effective on small and medium-sized proteins. In this context, we studied the application of the Ugi multicomponent reaction for the site-selective conjugation of amine and carboxylate groups on proteins, and antibodies in particular. Through an in-depth mechanistic methodology work supported by peptide mapping studies, we managed to develop a set of conditions allowing the highly selective modification of antibodies bearing N-terminal glutamate and aspartate residues. We demonstrated that this strategy did not alter their affinity toward their target antigen and produced an antibody-drug conjugate with subnanomolar potency. Excitingly, we showed that the high site selectivity of our strategy was maintained on other protein formats, especially on anticalins, for which directed mutagenesis helped to highlight the key importance of a single lysine residue.

Influence of pneumatic transportation on the stability of monoclonal antibodies.

Pneumatic transportation systems (PTS) were recently proposed as a method to carry ready-for-injection diluted monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from the pharmacy to the bedside of patients. This method reduces transportation time and improves the efficiency of drug distribution process. However, mAbs are highly sensitive molecules for which subtle alterations may lead to deleterious clinical effects. These alterations can be caused by various external factors such as temperature, pH, pressure, and mechanical forces that may occur during transportation. Hence, it is essential to ensure that the mAbs transported by PTS remain stable and active throughout the transportation process. This study aims to determine the safety profile of PTS to transport 11 routinely used mAbs in a clinical setting through assessment of critical quality attributes (CQA) and orthogonal analysis. Hence, we performed aggregation/degradation profiling, post-translational modifications identification using complementary mass spectrometry-based methods, along with visible and subvisible particle formation determination by light absorbance and light obscuration analysis. Altogether, these results highlight that PTS can be safely used for this purpose when air is removed from the bags during preparation.

Reinvestigation of the Automated Synthesis of Stoichiometrically Conjugated Antibodies to Access High Molecular Weight Payloads and Multiplexed Conjugation via an In-Solution Trans-Tagging Process.

Protein conjugates have found applications in a wide variety of fields, ranging from therapeutics to imaging and detection. However, robust control over the parameters of the conjugation process (such as sites and degree of conjugation) remains challenging. Previously, our group introduced Equimolar NAtive Chemical Tagging (ENACT), a method which allows for the monofunctionalization of proteins by combining an iterative low-conversion bioconjugation, an automated process, and a bioorthogonal trans-tagging reaction. However, while the automated ENACT was dimensioned to achieve monoconjugation at the mg scale, in early stage research, because of the rarity and cost of the starting materials, it is often necessary to prepare conjugates at the lower, µg, scale. Here, we introduce modified ENACT protocols, as well as a new ENACT conjugation reagent, which allow for the monofunctionalization of proteins on the micrograms scale, using minimal quantities of payload.

Targeted Anticancer Agent with Original Mode of Action Prepared by Supramolecular Assembly of Antibody Oligonucleotide Conjugates and Cationic Nanoparticles.

Despite their clinical success, Antibody-Drug Conjugates (ADCs) are still limited to the delivery of a handful of cytotoxic small-molecule payloads. Adaptation of this successful format to the delivery of alternative types of cytotoxic payloads is of high interest in the search for novel anticancer treatments. Herein, we considered that the inherent toxicity of cationic nanoparticles (cNP), which limits their use as oligonucleotide delivery systems, could be turned into an opportunity to access a new family of toxic payloads. We complexed anti-HER2 antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates (AOC) with cytotoxic cationic polydiacetylenic micelles to obtain Antibody-Toxic-Nanoparticles Conjugates (ATNPs) and studied their physicochemical properties, as well as their bioactivity in both in vitro and in vivo HER2 models. After optimising their AOC/cNP ratio, the small (73 nm) HER2-targeting ATNPs were found to selectively kill antigen-positive SKBR-2 cells over antigen-negative MDA-MB-231 cells in serum-containing medium. Further in vivo anti-cancer activity was demonstrated in an SKBR-3 tumour xenograft model in BALB/c mice in which stable 60% tumour regression could be observed just after two injections of 45 pmol of ATNP. These results open interesting prospects in the use of such cationic nanoparticles as payloads for ADC-like strategies.

A Combination of Native LC-MS Approaches for the Comprehensive Characterization of the Antibody-Drug Conjugate Trastuzumab Deruxtecan.

BACKGROUND: Native mass spectrometry (nMS) approaches appear attractive to complement bottom-up strategies traditionally used in biopharmaceutical industries thanks to their quite straightforward and rapid workflows, especially through online hyphenation of non-denaturing liquid chromatography (LC) to nMS. The present work provides an overview of the state-of-the-art chromatographic tools available for the detailed characterization of monoclonal antibody (mAb) formats, exemplified on the antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) trastuzumab deruxtecan (T-DXd). METHODS: T-DXd was first characterized by conventional reversed phase LC (rpLC) and peptide mapping. Couplings of size exclusion chromatography (SEC), cation exchange chromatography (CEX), and hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) to nMS were used to gain further insights into size, hydrophobic, and charge variants of T-DXd and its parental mAb trastuzumab, at intact and middle-up levels. RESULTS: SEC-nMS first offered a direct snapshot of the homogeneous conjugation of T-DXd, with an average drug-to-antibody ratio (DAR) of 8 in agreement with a conjugation on cysteines after reduction of all interchain disulfide bonds. Moreover, SEC-nMS afforded precise identification and quantification of aggregates and fragments. Middle-up level experiments performed after IdeS digestion confirmed that drug conjugation occurs in the Fab region of the mAb, as seen with rpLC. HIC separated two DAR8 species that could not be differentiated by nMS. Although middle-up HIC-nMS proved to be more informative for oxidized forms, the identification of minor variants was still difficult because of poor MS signal quality, showing how the coupling of HIC to nMS remains challenging. Lastly, middle-up CEX-nMS provided accurate determination and localization of post-translational modifications, with several acidic/basic variants within Fab and Fc regions of T-DXd that were also identified by peptide mapping. CONCLUSIONS: This study illustrates the strengths and drawbacks of each LC-nMS coupling. By combining SEC-, HIC-, and CEX-nMS, we were able to achieve a comprehensive characterization of T-DXd without extensive sample preparation prior to MS analysis.

A novel nuclear receptor subfamily enlightens the origin of heterodimerization.

BACKGROUND: Nuclear receptors are transcription factors of central importance in human biology and associated diseases. Much of the knowledge related to their major functions, such as ligand and DNA binding or dimerization, derives from functional studies undertaken in classical model animals. It has become evident, however, that a deeper understanding of these molecular functions requires uncovering how these characteristics originated and diversified during evolution, by looking at more species. In particular, the comprehension of how dimerization evolved from ancestral homodimers to a more sophisticated state of heterodimers has been missing, due to a too narrow phylogenetic sampling. Here, we experimentally and phylogenetically define the evolutionary trajectory of nuclear receptor dimerization by analyzing a novel NR7 subgroup, present in various metazoan groups, including cnidarians, annelids, mollusks, sea urchins, and amphioxus, but lost in vertebrates, arthropods, and nematodes. RESULTS: We focused on NR7 of the cephalochordate amphioxus B. lanceolatum. We present a complementary set of functional, structural, and evolutionary analyses that establish that NR7 lies at a pivotal point in the evolutionary trajectory from homodimerizing to heterodimerizing nuclear receptors. The crystal structure of the NR7 ligand-binding domain suggests that the isolated domain is not capable of dimerizing with the ubiquitous dimerization partner RXR. In contrast, the full-length NR7 dimerizes with RXR in a DNA-dependent manner and acts as a constitutively active receptor. The phylogenetic and sequence analyses position NR7 at a pivotal point, just between the basal class I nuclear receptors that form monomers or homodimers on DNA and the derived class II nuclear receptors that exhibit the classical DNA-independent RXR heterodimers. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that NR7 represents the "missing link" in the transition between class I and class II nuclear receptors and that the DNA independency of heterodimer formation is a feature that was acquired during evolution. Our studies define a novel paradigm of nuclear receptor dimerization that evolved from DNA-dependent to DNA-independent requirements. This new concept emphasizes the importance of DNA in the dimerization of nuclear receptors, such as the glucocorticoid receptor and other members of this pharmacologically important oxosteroid receptor subfamily. Our studies further underline the importance of studying emerging model organisms for supporting cutting-edge research.

A Novel Family of Acid-Cleavable Linker Based on Cyclic Acetal Motifs for the Production of Antibody-Drug Conjugates with High Potency and Selectivity.

Cleavable linkers have become the subject of intense study in the field of chemical biology, particularly because of their applications in the construction of antibody-drug conjugates (ADC), where they facilitate lysosomal cleavage and liberation of drugs from their carrier protein. Due to lysosomes' acidic nature, acid-labile motifs have attracted much attention, leading to the development of hydrazone and carbonate linkers among several other entities. Continuing our efforts in designing new moieties, we present here a family of cyclic acetals that exhibit excellent plasma stability and acid lability, notably in lysosomes. Incorporated in ADC, they led to potent constructs with picomolar potency in vitro and similar in vivo efficacy as the commercially available ADC Kadcyla in mouse xenograft models.

A structural signature motif enlightens the origin and diversification of nuclear receptors.

Nuclear receptors are ligand-activated transcription factors that modulate gene regulatory networks from embryonic development to adult physiology and thus represent major targets for clinical interventions in many diseases. Most nuclear receptors function either as homodimers or as heterodimers. The dimerization is crucial for gene regulation by nuclear receptors, by extending the repertoire of binding sites in the promoters or the enhancers of target genes via combinatorial interactions. Here, we focused our attention on an unusual structural variation of the α-helix, called π-turn that is present in helix H7 of the ligand-binding domain of RXR and HNF4. By tracing back the complex evolutionary history of the π-turn, we demonstrate that it was present ancestrally and then independently lost in several nuclear receptor lineages. Importantly, the evolutionary history of the π-turn motif is parallel to the evolutionary diversification of the nuclear receptor dimerization ability from ancestral homodimers to derived heterodimers. We then carried out structural and biophysical analyses, in particular through point mutation studies of key RXR signature residues and showed that this motif plays a critical role in the network of interactions stabilizing homodimers. We further showed that the π-turn was instrumental in allowing a flexible heterodimeric interface of RXR in order to accommodate multiple interfaces with numerous partners and critical for the emergence of high affinity receptors. Altogether, our work allows to identify a functional role for the π-turn in oligomerization of nuclear receptors and reveals how this motif is linked to the emergence of a critical biological function. We conclude that the π-turn can be viewed as a structural exaptation that has contributed to enlarging the functional repertoire of nuclear receptors.

Non-specific interactions of antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates with living cells.

Antibody-Oligonucleotide Conjugates (AOCs) represent an emerging class of functionalized antibodies that have already been used in a wide variety of applications. While the impact of dye and drug conjugation on antibodies' ability to bind their target has been extensively studied, little is known about the effect caused by the conjugation of hydrophilic and charged payloads such as oligonucleotides on the functions of an antibody. Previous observations of non-specific interactions of nucleic acids with untargeted cells prompted us to further investigate their impact on AOC binding abilities and cell selectivity. We synthesized a series of single- and double-stranded AOCs, as well as a human serum albumin-oligonucleotide conjugate, and studied their interactions with both targeted and non-targeted living cells using a time-resolved analysis of ligand binding assay. Our results indicate that conjugation of single strand oligonucleotides to proteins induce consistent non-specific interactions with cell surfaces while double strand oligonucleotides have little or no effect, depending on the preparation method.

Bicyclo[6.1.0]nonyne carboxylic acid for the production of stable molecular probes.

Bicyclo[6.1.0]non-4-yn-9-ylmethanol (BCN alcohol) is the most prominent strained-alkyne scaffold in chemical biology. Described herein is the synthesis of an oxidized analogue - BCN acid - whose facile functionalization via amide bond formation yields more stable derivatives than the classically encountered carbamates.

Hands on Native Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Multi-protein Complexes.

By maintaining intact multi-protein complexes in the gas-phase, native mass spectrometry provides their molecular weight with very good accuracy compared to other methods (typically native PAGE or SEC-MALS) (Marcoux and Robinson, Structure 21:1541-1550, 2013). Besides, heterogeneous samples, in terms of both oligomeric states and ligand-bound species can be fully characterized. Here we thoroughly describe the analysis of several oligomeric protein complexes ranging from a 16 = kDa dimer to a 801-kDa tetradecameric complex on different instrumental setups.

Investigating Ugi/Passerini Multicomponent Reactions for the Site-Selective Conjugation of Native Trastuzumab*.

Site-selective modification of proteins has been the object of intense studies over the past decades, especially in the therapeutic field. Prominent results have been obtained with recombinant proteins, for which site-specific conjugation is made possible by the incorporation of particular amino acid residues or peptide sequences. In parallel, methods for the site-selective and site-specific conjugation of native and natural proteins are starting to thrive, allowing the controlled functionalization of various types of amino acid residues. Pursuing the efforts in this field, we planned to develop a new type of site-selective method, aiming at the simultaneous conjugation of two amino acid residues. We reasoned that this should give higher chances of developing a site-selective strategy compared to the great majority of existing methods that solely target a single residue. We opted for the Ugi four-centre three-component reaction to implement this idea, with the aim of conjugating the side-chain amine and carboxylate groups of two neighbouring lysine and aspartate/glutamate. Herein, we show that this strategy can give access to valuable antibody conjugates bearing several different payloads; furthermore, the approach limits the potential conjugation sites to only six on the model antibody trastuzumab.

Ethynylation of Cysteine Residues: From Peptides to Proteins in Vitro and in Living Cells.

Current approaches to introduce terminal alkynes for bioorthogonal reactions into biomolecules still present limitations in terms of either reactivity, selectivity, or adduct stability. We present a method for the ethynylation of cysteine residues based on the use of ethynylbenziodoxolone (EBX) reagents. The acetylene group is directly introduced onto the thiol group of cysteine and can be used for copper-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) without further processing. Labeling proceeded with reaction rates comparable to or higher than the most often used iodoacetamide on peptides or maleimide on the antibody trastuzumab, and high cysteine selectivity was observed. The reagents were also used in living cells for cysteine proteomic profiling and displayed improved coverage of the cysteinome compared to previously reported iodoacetamide or hypervalent iodine reagents. Fine-tuning of the EBX reagents allows optimization of their reactivity and physical properties.

Homogeneous antibody-drug conjugates: DAR 2 anti-HER2 obtained by conjugation on isolated light chain followed by mAb assembly.

Despite advances in medical care, cancer remains a major threat to human health. Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are a promising targeted therapy to overcome adverse side effects to normal tissues. In this field, the current challenge is obtaining homogeneous preparations of conjugates, where a defined number of drugs are conjugated to specific antibody sites. Site-directed cysteine-based conjugation is commonly used to obtain homogeneous ADC, but it is a time-consuming and expensive approach due to the need for extensive antibody engineering to identify the optimal conjugation sites and reduction - oxidation protocols are specific for each antibody. There is thus a need for ADC platforms that offer homogeneity and direct applicability to the already approved antibody therapeutics. Here we describe a novel approach to derive homogeneous ADCs with drug-to-antibody ratio of 2 from any human immunoglobulin 1 (IgG1), using trastuzumab as a model. The method is based on the production of heavy chains (HC) and light chains (LC) in two recombinant HEK293 independent cultures, so the original amino acid sequence is not altered. Isolated LC was effectively conjugated to a single drug-linker (vcMMAE) construct and mixed to isolated HC dimers, in order to obtain a correctly folded ADC. The relevance of the work was validated in terms of ADC homogeneity (HIC-HPLC, MS), purity (SEC-HPLC), isolated antigen recognition (ELISA) and biological activity (HER2-positive breast cancer cells cytotoxicity assays).

A Case Study to Identify the Drug Conjugation Site of a Site-Specific Antibody-Drug-Conjugate Using Middle-Down Mass Spectrometry.

Middle-down mass spectrometry (MD MS) has emerged as a promising alternative to classical bottom-up approaches for protein characterization. Middle-level experiments after enzymatic digestion are routinely used for subunit analysis of monoclonal antibody (mAb)-related compounds, providing information on drug load distribution and average drug-to-antibody ratio (DAR). However, peptide mapping is still the gold standard for primary amino acid sequence assessment, post-translational modifications (PTM), and drug conjugation identification and localization. However, peptide mapping strategies can be challenging when dealing with more complex and heterogeneous mAb formats, like antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs). We report here, for the first time, MD MS analysis of a third-generation site-specific DAR4 ADC using different fragmentation techniques, including higher-energy collisional- (HCD), electron-transfer (ETD) dissociation and 213 nm ultraviolet photodissociation (UVPD). UVPD used as a standalone technique for ADC subunit analysis afforded, within the same liquid chromatography-MS/MS run, enhanced performance in terms of primary sequence coverage compared to HCD- or ETD-based MD approaches, and generated substantially more MS/MS fragments containing either drug conjugation or glycosylation site information, leading to confident drug/glycosylation site identification. In addition, our results highlight the complementarity of ETD and UVPD for both primary sequence validation and drug conjugation/glycosylation site assessment. Altogether, our results highlight the potential of UVPD for ADC MD MS analysis for drug conjugation/glycosylation site assessment, and indicate that MD MS strategies can improve structural characterization of empowered next-generation mAb-based formats, especially for PTMs and drug conjugation sites validation.

Arginine-selective bioconjugation with 4-azidophenyl glyoxal: application to the single and dual functionalisation of native antibodies.

Here, we introduce 4-azidophenyl glyoxal (APG) as an efficient plug-and-play reagent for the selective functionalisation of arginine residues in native antibodies. The selective reaction between APG and arginines' guanidine groups allowed a facile introduction of azide groups on the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab (plug stage). These pre-functionalised antibody-azide conjugates were then derivatised during the "play stage" via a biorthogonal cycloaddition reaction with different strained alkynes. This afforded antibody-fluorophore and antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates, all showing preserved antigen selectivity and high stability in human plasma. Due to a lower content of arginines compared to lysines in native antibodies, this approach is thus attractive for the preparation of more homogeneous conjugates. This method proved to be orthogonal to classical lysine-based conjugation and allowed straightforward generation of dual-payload antibody.

Acyl Fluorides: Fast, Efficient, and Versatile Lysine-Based Protein Conjugation via Plug-and-Play Strategy.

We report a plug-and-play strategy for the preparation of functionally enhanced antibodies with a defined average degree of conjugation (DoC). The first stage (plug) allows the controllable and efficient installation of azide groups on lysine residues of a native antibody using 4-azidobenzoyl fluoride. The second step (play) allows for versatile antibody functionalization with a single payload or combination of payloads, such as a toxin, a fluorophore, or an oligonucleotide, via copper-free strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC). It is notable that in comparison to a classical N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (NHS) strategy, benzoyl fluorides show faster and more efficient acylation of lysine residues in a PBS buffer. This translates into better control of the DoC and enables the efficient and fast functionalization of delicate biomolecules at low temperature.